Gravity Chapter
6 continued
Convection
With respect to convection, if Figure 10 is referred to,
another diagram below is sufficient comparison.
This simple and graphically shows that atoms in the vicinity
of the heat source would, in absorbing heat energy from
it into their energy fields, expand and thus individually
reduce in density, with a consequent reduction in gravitational
attraction relative to adjacent atoms, which will therefore
induce them to rise and be replaced by cooler, denser atoms, ultimately
forming the observed cyclical, convective motion of gases within such
a container.
Fig.26
Field Theory and Human Respiration
The process of human respiration
is very simply, and graphically demonstrated in the diagram
below and again, if compared to Figure 14, needs little
explanation. Clearly the flow of air over the surfaces
of the lung walls will always contain a proportion of oxygen
atoms that are in direct contact with it and, as these atoms pass to
and fro over these surfaces, this clearly allows a reasonable period
of time for the process of absorption of the observed percentage of
the oxygen component to take place.
Figure 27
Note: The inner surfaces of the multitude of compartments
in the lungs are different to the simplistic diagram above, however
this does not compromise the comparison between kinetic and field
theories in any way.
Before this concept can be tested against other previous examples,
another issue must be examined, and this is the dimension of the individual
atomic fields in different gases, or in other words the atomic volumes.
The two main component gases of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen
have Specific Gravities of 1.256 and 1.459 grams/litre respectively,
however the lightest element, hydrogen has a specific gravity of 0.09
g/L. Thus the mass of equal volumes of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
are in the ratio of about 1 : 14 : 16, and it is currently assumed
that equal volumes of these gases contain equal numbers of di-atomic
molecules.
Volume of Atoms
Democritus intuitatively asserted that matter is ultimately
atomic by suggesting that if we take a cake and divided
it into half again and again, we will come to a point where
we cannot divide it again - and arrive at the ultimate particle of
matter.
As mentioned the laws of combining volumes and definite
proportions seem to confirm this, and accordingly if we
take two equal ‘cakes’ of the lightest elements helium
and hydrogen, the specific gravities of which are 0.179 g/L and 0.09
g/L respectively, and divide both in half and continue to do this,
we will end up at a point where we have two equal volumes, at least
one of which cannot be divided further, as we have arrived at a single,
indivisible atom or particle.
As stated earlier Avogadro suggested that at equal pressures
and temperatures equal volumes of different elemental gases
contain the same number of atoms or molecules.
Avogadro assumed that each volume would contain a ‘molecule’,
but this molecule could be either (in his terms) a ‘molécule
intégrante’ (a molecule) or a ‘molécule élémentaire’ (an
atom), and therefore in this particular case he would assume that
these equal volumes of hydrogen and helium would contain, on the
one hand a particle that is comprised of two hydrogen atoms bonded
together to form a (di-atomic) molecule, while the other would contain
a single, ‘molécule élémentaire’ or atom, of helium.
If Avogadro’s hypothesis is invalid and the ratio of atoms
of one gas to the atoms of any other gas per unit volume
is not always 1:1, then this suggests the relative atomic
weights that are derived from this assumption may also be wrong.
However if we are to suggest that this ratio is not consistent
between all gases then the problem of establishing any
other quantitative relationship between atomic masses is
an extremely difficult proposition, which indeed is one reason why
Avogadro’s theory was considered at Karlsruhe and subsequently accepted.
As Avogadro’s hypothesis with respect to di-atomic or polyatomic
molecules is dependant on his 1:1 ratio of atoms/molecules
in all gases, let us then look at this hydrogen/helium
cake situation in a different way.
If we accept an atomic hypothesis, the assumption that
in the final division a single atom will be arrived at
can be taken as a fact, but if we are to take this further
to establish the number of atoms in the other cake, we need to start
to make more assumptions that cannot be proven. This however could
not be considered unreasonable as the whole kinetic atomic hypothesis,
and therefore current atomic theory, is built upon a sequence of
unproven assumptions,17 from Avogadro’s through to the present day.
What we can say with certainty is that the progressive
division of two equal volumes of helium and hydrogen will
end up at an ultimate division where the mass ratio is
about 2-to-1.
What we can then say is that one these volumes will contain
one atom, but we cannot say with any certainty what number
of atoms is contained in the other volume other than it
cannot be less than 1, but it could be precisely one or more than
one.18
The table below sets out the Relative Masses of six naturally
occurring gases to a base of hydrogen.19
But as we cannot weigh individual atoms (just as we cannot measure
their supposed velocities) there is no means of determining any specific
relation in these characteristics from this information.
If however the mass ratios for precisely equal volumes
of any two gases were precisely whole numbers then perhaps it would
be different.
But for a start we could consider the following number
ratios for hydrogen and helium as in the figures below
and analyse the resultant mass and volume ratios.
Figure 28
We will firstly assume that the mass of a hydrogen atom is less than
that of a helium atom and, if we also assume that there is one atom
of hydrogen to one of helium as in Fig 1, then the mass of a helium
atom would be nearly twice that of a hydrogen atom, which, while it
conforms to the actual specific gravity ratio, would occupy precisely
the same volume.
If we then assume that a helium atom occupies in the region
of half the volume of a hydrogen atom as in Fig 2, this
would mean that the relative mass of such a helium atom is slightly
less than the hydrogen atom, at 0.994.
Fig 5 would be closest to current assumptions of atomic
masses, where the number ratio is 2:1, and in this case
the mass of helium would be about 4 times that of hydrogen.
However to attempt to resolve the problem of atomic volumes
we need to consider another set of facts, and the specific
heats of these gases can provide a clue. These specific heats are as
set out below, together with their ratios to that of hydrogen as a
base, and a comparison with the relative masses.
This shows that the relationship between the specific heats and the
relative masses in the cases of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are very
close. For these gases this means that the quantity of heat needed
to raise equal volumes 1°C is almost exactly the same.
i.e. 1 gram of hydrogen occupies 11.11 litres and needs
3.45 calories to raise its temperature 1 degree, 11.11
litres of oxygen has a mass of (11.11 x 1.429 =) 15.87 grams, thus
the oxygen requires (15.87 x 0.218 =) 3.46 calories and to raise
the same volume of nitrogen by 1°C would need 3.45 calories.
However it is significant that this similarity does not
apply to helium, argon and chlorine, which vary considerably
to factors of close to +/- 27.5%.
If we now consider hydrogen and oxygen ‘cakes’, we will
again ultimately arrive at a situation where we have one
atom of one element and one or more atoms of the other.
If the ratio of atoms per unit volume were one to one,
then this would mean that the same quantity of heat would
be needed to raise the temperature or the energy level
of a single atom of hydrogen by 1ºC as for that for an
atom of oxygen. In other words a hydrogen atom, of 1/16th the mass
of an oxygen atom, would require sixteen times the amount of energy
needed by the oxygen atom to raise it the same temperature. This
simply defies logic and this ratio of one to one cannot be sustained
and is a further example of the illogicality of Avogadro’s hypothesis.
However it must be accepted that, in the current absence
of the technical ability to isolate and measure individual
atoms, any assumption as to the ratio of atoms per unit
volume or to the relative masses of the atoms, of any two
different elemental gases would be a speculation, furthermore
it must be assumed that this ratio would not be a whole number.
But it would be reasonable to assume that the volume of
the energy field of an individual atom is directly proportional
to its mass.
Therefore if we assume that the mass of an atom of oxygen
is greater than that of an atom hydrogen and that accordingly
the volume occupied by an atom of oxygen is greater than
that occupied by an atom of hydrogen, we could suggest
that the unit volume ratio of these two gases is similar
to the ratio of the two specific gravities, i.e. 16 : 1.
This would mean that, per unit volume, there would be about
16 atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen.
To reiterate this is speculative, but as the determination
of any specific quantitative relationship between the masses
and volumes of different elemental atoms is not essential
to the focus of this study, for the moment this issue can
be put aside.
Thus if it is suggested that the volumes occupied by the
individual atoms of elemental gases conforms to the specific
gravity ratios and, as these for hydrogen, helium, nitrogen
and oxygen are approximately 1 : 2 : 14 : 16, their relative
volumes would be as represented below.
Figure 29
Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
It will be clear from the above that
in mixing two pure, elemental gases, involving atoms of
differing volumes, a disruption of the ordered state of the atoms of
each gas will result. In these circumstances the mixture will attempt
to attain a state that is as near equilibrium as possible, however
in some circumstances a stable configuration may not be possible and
‘rogue’ atoms, of larger or smaller dimensions, may be pushed by the
combined forces of irritated ‘conformist’ atoms into a search for a
position of relative stability.
Helium-Nitrogen Admixture
Before moving on with this concept we can
test it by applying it to the helium / nitrogen admixture
discussed earlier on page 42 and on the above basis we can suggest
that the volume of a helium atom is about 1/7th that of a nitrogen
atom.
In the diagram below the atoms are depicted in these proportions.
Fig. A shows the helium and nitrogen separated by a sheet
of solid matter and an arrangement of the atoms in closest
proximity (here represented in just two dimensions, which of course
is not an accurate representation of the arrangements of these atoms
in reality).
If this dividing sheet is removed as in Fig. B then it
can be seen that a state of physical non-equilibrium exists
between the two different gases and it will be clear that
the inter-atomic forces, generated by the differences in
masses and dimensions and the attractive and repulsive
forces of the atoms, will not allow this state to perpetuate indefinitely,
which will result in the penetration of the smaller nitrogen
atoms in between the helium atoms as in Fig. C. 20
This penetration will result in further disruption of the
ordered equilibrium of the nitrogen atoms, and in effect
the individual helium atoms will be pushed hither and thither
until they will be positioned, in this case, in the centre
of a cluster of nitrogen atoms, which would be the closest to the
state of equilibrium that is possible in the circumstances.
Figure 30
It is clear that in an undisturbed gas this would take some time and
that some form of agitation would be necessary to accelerate this process.
Continued >
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