Gravity Chapter
6 continued
Homogeneity
As is observed the mixing of two different gases ultimately
results in a homogeneous combination and in this case
where 5% of helium is combined with 95% of nitrogen, and where we suggest
that there are 7 atoms of helium to 1 of nitrogen per unit volume,
then the ratio of the atoms of these gases in this container would
be about 2.7 atoms of nitrogen to one helium atom.
The imposition of helium atoms into the ordered arrangement
of the larger nitrogen atoms would of course result in
an imbalance, a state of local non-equilibrium and a disruption of
inter-atomic forces that would generate forces that would attempt
to restore a level of equilibrium, (as matter is observed always
to do, without exception) and this would result in the smaller number
of helium atoms being forced to a point of minimum disruption and
maximum equilibrium within the dominant nitrogen in the particular
circumstances faced here.
This situation is represented below, showing an ultimate
configuration or arrangement of the mixture of these two
gases that would be a possible condition of maximum equilibrium,
which pattern would be repeated throughout the gas when a homogeneous
mixture has evolved.
Note: These diagrams are not intended to be an accurate
depiction of the true arrangements of atoms, and in any
case two-dimensional drawings cannot achieve this, they
are designed only to demonstrate the principles.
Figure 30
Air
In the atmospheric gases the percentages of nitrogen and
oxygen are remarkably consistent, and these proportions
are, with very slight variations, 78 percent to 21 percent
and, if we assume that there are eight atoms of nitrogen to seven of
oxygen per unit volume, the number ratio of the respective atoms in
air at these percentages will be about 4.25:1, or in whole numbers
17 atoms of nitrogen to 4 of oxygen.
This consistency extends to hundreds of kilometres into
space and, in the other direction, down into the deepest
mines. It also extends horizontally over the oceans, into
the middle of deserts, in the rainforests (where oxygen
is produced) and in the middle of cities where the oxygen
component is converted in large proportions, by internal and other
combustion processes including human respiration, into other gases.
As the diameters of the atoms of these two gases differ
fractionally as depicted in A below the resultant inter-atomic
forces will not be as great as in the helium-nitrogen mixture
and the larger more dominant oxygen atom will be accommodated
within the larger number of nitrogen atoms almost as if it were the
same and an arrangement similar to the cluster depicted in Figure
23 would result.
In this system the atoms of a gas would be arranged in
such a way that the centre of each atom is bisected by
a line drawn between each of the six pairs of atoms that
in contact with the central atom but are on directly opposite
sides as indicated in the below. Thus each atom of an elemental
gas is positioned so that it is the central point of
six rows of other atoms that extend indefinitely in six
different directions or dimensions.
Figure 31
In this arrangement the oxygen atoms could tend to arrange themselves
in such a row as shown by the unshaded atoms in Fig. B above or in
a zigzag configuration as shown in Fig. C both could result in a close
approximation to the required ratio of 4.25:1. Such arrangements would
be due to the oxygen atoms tendency to be in close contact, in accordance
with their greater mass in comparison to that of nitrogen. However
these strings of oxygen atoms may not necessarily extend indefinitely
and the actual arrangements may fluctuate to some extent. Computation
of a consistent arrangement and confirmation of suggested ratios may
however be possible but difficult, in view of the multi-dimensional
arrangement of fluid atoms.
This orderly arrangement of the atoms of the two gases
of the kind represented above would clearly result in the
observed consistent, homogenous proportions of these gases throughout
the atmosphere.
Water
In the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen, two volumes of
hydrogen (of mass 1 unit) combine with one volume of oxygen,
that has a mass eight times that of the hydrogen, to form
just two volumes of gaseous water (water vapour or steam)
of a total mass of 9 units. This is a highly exothermic
chemical reaction, in other words it is accompanied by a large expulsion
of energy, which in this case can take the form of a violent combustion
or explosion.
(It is important to note however that oxygen and hydrogen
can exist together without this chemical reaction occurring,
and some form of disturbance or catalyst is needed to initiate
this reaction.)
So from three volumes of gases, two volumes are formed
and energy is expelled, thus the volume of either the oxygen
atoms or the hydrogen atoms, or both, have experienced
an overall loss of volume of a third of the original total
to allow the formation of water vapour or steam.
According to our previous assumptions a volume of hydrogen
would contain 16 times the number of atoms contained in
one volume of oxygen, and thus a volume of water vapour
would consist of 32 atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen.
Therefore a total of 32 atoms of hydrogen would combine
with just one of oxygen and H2O should be written instead
H32O. The diagram below depicts a suggested arrangement
of the atoms in water vapour.
Figure 32
This arrangement of two gases of widely differing masses and volumes
has further inter-atomic implications in that a more massive atom,
with a proportionately greater attractive force, may distort the lesser
atoms force fields, that are in direct contact with it, to a greater
extent than normal as in the diagram below. If such a distortion of
just the hydrogen atoms alone is considered in the context of the highly
exothermic reaction of hydrogen and oxygen in forming water vapour,
then it can be logically suggested that this emission of energy is
a result, or the by-product, of the contraction of some, or all the
hydrogen atoms during this process. It could also be that both oxygen
and hydrogen atoms lose some volume.
Figure 33
This would lead naturally to a further suggestion that all compounds
produced as a result of exothermic or endothermic reactions involve
an expansion or a contraction of force fields to accompany the emission
or absorption of energy necessary to complete the process.
Molecules Don’t Exist
This also leads on to the suggestion that molecules do
not exist as separate entities and that compounds are similar
to non-reactive mixtures in that they are simply arrangements
of the atoms of two or more elements in a configuration
that is adapted to suit each of their individual characteristics
of mass and volume, or rather the forces that resulting from these
characteristics.
Clearly the suggestions as outlined above raise an enormous
number of questions concerning the structure and composition
of matter at atomic level and it is not the purpose of this book
to attempt the impossible task of re-writing all or any part of the
science of chemistry. If these general ideas are accepted then this
huge task will occupy chemists for some time.
Compression
A volume of atmospheric gas is contained within a cylinder/piston
apparatus (a perfect apparatus with a frictionless piston
as in the figures below) and the external pressure on the
apparatus and the external face of the piston is one atmosphere.
If then an external force is applied to the piston to move
it inwards and compress the gas in the cylinder, the cylinder
and piston both register an increase in temperature.
If an external force is applied in the opposite direction
to extract the piston from the cylinder and thus decompress
the gas, a reduction in temperature is experienced.
In both cases, if the force on the piston is maintained,
after a period of time has elapsed the temperature of the
apparatus returns to ambient temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere, and to maintain the secondary position of the
piston a continued application of force is necessary.
In both cases an external force, in effecting a compression
or a decompression of the gas within the cylinder, has
in the first case, caused the gas to give off heat energy,
initially to the apparatus and ultimately to the surrounding
atmospheric gases, and in the second case the reverse happens
where the gas has absorbed heat energy from the apparatus itself,
which in turn absorbs heat from the surrounding matter.
If the force applied to the piston is then removed in both
cases it will return to its original position and the pressure
and volume of the internal gases will return to the original
levels, and in this process both cases the gas either absorbs
or emits the same amount of energy that it emitted or absorbed
in the compression or decompression process.
Figure 35
The piston face in moving applies a compressive force to the gas atoms
that are in contact with it (and to the atoms in the face of the piston).
The repulsive forces of the atoms resist this and accordingly
transmit this pressure immediately to all the other atoms
of the gas.
All the atoms of the gas are consequently forced to emit
energy from their force fields to allow a reduction in
volume, and in order to attain relative equilibrium this
surplus energy is transmitted, or rather forced into, the nearest
matter, which is the solid (metal) structure of the hypothetical
piston and cylinder.
The heat energy imparted to the atoms of the surface of
the metal increases their energy levels, resulting in an
energy imbalance in the solid. This imbalance results in
a transfer of energy to adjacent cooler atoms and this,
relatively slow, conduction of energy through the metal
continues until the state of near equilibrium at a higher
energy level is reached in the cylinder walls.
Figure 36
The cross section of the cylinder wall in Figure A above represents
the idealised atomic structure of the metal and the external and the
internal gases, and in Figure B the internal gas atoms have been compressed
into a smaller volume by the action of the piston.
If the pressure of the piston is maintained then a state
of non-equilibrium is maintained in the gases within the
cylinder relative to the outside gases, i.e. a reduced
energy level and volume. With respect to the matter of
the cylinder, the atoms in contact with the internal
gases ultimately attain an equivalent energy level, while those on
the outer faces that are in contact with the external gases are also
at a comparable energy level with these atoms.
Figure 37
Thus an energy differential or gradient exists between the inner and
the outer atoms of the cylinder and a state of non-equilibrium exists
in this solid matter. This is depicted above, where the compressed
internal gases are to the left, however it must be emphasised that
this diagram shows the energy differential and not a temperature differential.
This situation results in inter-atomic stresses in the
cylinder walls that can only be resolved by a change in
circumstances that result in the force on the piston being restored
to nil.
The point that must be emphasised here is that, even in
a hypothetical situation, the characteristics of the matter
of the apparatus, in this case its resistance to deformation, cannot
be ignored.
Thus the retention of a force applied to the piston is
necessary to maintain the existence of a state of non-equilibrium
of the whole apparatus, including the gas contained within it.
If the position of the piston is maintained by the application
of a force then the energy differential between the internal
and the external atoms will remain indefinitely, as will the energy
gradient through the walls of the cylinder.
Clearly an energy differential between the inner and the
outer surfaces of the cylinder walls and the resultant
differences in atomic volumes would create a state of stress in the
metal.
In Figure A below, where the hypothetical cylinder wall
is just three atoms thick, the atoms at the external surface
that are at a higher energy level, and accordingly have expanded
relative to those at the internal faces, are represented by the darker
shaded atoms.
The inter-atomic forces of attraction and repulsion would
clearly result in the directional forces and the deformation
of the wall as shown below in Figure B.
Figure 38
The extent of any distortion will depend on the pressure differential
and consequently the energy differential between the inner and outer
faces.
Thus in the case above with a wall of just three atoms
a small energy differential would result in a large distortion,
but a substantial wall thickness, of many billions of atoms between
the inner and outer faces, the same differential would accordingly
result in a negligible distortion.
Decompression
The issue of compression and decompression has been
discussed and that the extremes of these forces would result
in ‘singularity’ on the one hand and ‘vacuum’ on the other.
And the point has been made that compression of matter
can only occur with an emission of energy and that decompression
can only occur with absorption of energy.
Figure 39
In the diagram above the piston has been extracted to form a volume
of low pressure within the cylinder, the atoms have thus been forcibly
expanded into a state of non-equilibrium and the attractive forces
of the nuclei in combination with the repulsive forces of the energy
field ensure that the distribution of atoms is consistent. The atomic
interactions of three of the atoms depicted during this process are
examined below.
As discussed earlier the attractive and the repulsive forces
of the atom decrease in intensity with increased altitude
from the core or nucleus and therefore the point where
these forces are at their weakest would be the intersection
of the force fields of three atoms as shown.
Figure 40
If a vacuum were possible, then at some point in a process of progressive
expansion, where the attractive and the repulsive forces are sufficiently
weakened by extension, this would be where it would tend to occur as
in Fig.A.
If it were not possible then clearly the atoms would experience
another force on their outer force fields that would have
the effect as depicted by the red arrows in Fig. B above.
This would be an ‘external’ force that would tend to pull
the field of each atom in the direction of the other two
atoms, this force is the ‘Force of Resistance to the State of a Vacuum’,
or to put it more dramatically the resistance of nature to the state
of nothingness, of non-existence.
This force explains why the expansion of matter is not
possible, in any circumstance, without the absorption of
energy into the matter itself, and why the external force needed
to progressively expand gases rises exponentially.
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