Gravity Chapter
7 continued
All matter attracts other matter according to Newton’s laws and therefore
all solid matter, being of greater density than the surrounding gaseous
matter, will attract the atoms of these gases, so that denser layers
will form near to the surfaces of the solid, which density will progressively
reduce in proportion to separation from it, in the same manner as the
gases of the earth’s atmosphere.
Thus an area of relative low pressure (shaded) is created
in the space between the two rod ends and the atoms within
this area are being decompressed relative to those under a compressive
force in the near vicinity of the surface, as well as in comparison
with those laterally some distance away. This lower pressure enhances
the gravitational forces of attraction transmitted via the intervening
atoms, in inducing a motion of the rod ends towards each
other, in other words a partial vacuum is maintained here that would
have the effect of pulling them into a closer association.
It is important to note here that atoms in the low-pressure
area will be subject to decompressive forces while those in contact
with the metal and in its vicinity will be under relative compression
and that these atoms, as a result of these forces, will accordingly
be attempting either to absorb or emit energy to their adjacent atoms.
The net result of this will be an overall tendency for
the transmission of thermal energy from the gas outside of the area
of influence into the atoms within it, as indicated in Figure 49.
21
Thus while the rods remain in place the forces of compression
and of decompression continue to act upon the atoms of
the intervening gases and the state of non-equilibrium in these gases
will also remain, and their situation is similar to that of the decompressed
gases in the cylinder apparatus in the previous chapter.
Of course the effects of these various forces on the intervening
gases between masses of this dimension are so minute that
measuring them is not possible by means of current technology
and, where other forces dominate, in particular here the strong gravitational
field of the earth, these forces have no discernible effect,
however the application of these combined forces for larger masses
of celestial dimensions are of immense importance.
Expansion of Gases
As stated matter expands with absorption of heat and contracts
with emission of heat, thus expansion of matter results
in both a reduction in density and an absorption of energy,
and it follows therefore that the energy content of a gas per atom
has increased.
This is an undeniable fact of nature, thus if a gas is
either heated, or alternatively subjected to lower and
lower pressures, its density decreases in direct proportion
to an increase in energy content per atom.
If a single atom of nitrogen is considered positioned at
the earth’s surface is heated directly or indirectly by
the sun and is surrounded by cooler gases, it will expand
and rise and will ultimately arrive at an altitude where
it is in a state of equilibrium with atoms of the same energy level
and density.
If this atom were to continue to rise however, it would
need a progressive input of energy to achieve this.
Let us suppose that energy is applied to this atom, in
order to allow it to continue to rise naturally to, say,
300 km above the earth’s surface, then it is clear that
it would need to absorb a considerable amount of energy
to be able to expand and rise to this altitude.
Moving this atom out further into the space between the
earth and the moon will subject it to further decompressive
forces and, as before, expansion in these circumstances
will only occur with an input of energy. If again energy
is supplied to this atom so that it can progressively expand,
it will move further and further from the earth towards
the moon until the point of gravitational neutrality between the
earth and the moon is reached.
All this is not remarkable, as it is precisely this characteristic
of gases that is used to raise hot air balloons to high
altitudes.
Atmosphere
As discussed earlier, it is now accepted that the atmosphere
of earth extends to and merges with that of the sun at
about 80,000 km. Thus there is an ‘atmosphere’ occupying
all the vast space between the orbit of the earth and the sun. By atmosphere
in this context, I mean there is a continuity of matter in the form
of gaseous atoms.
Of course the density of these gases is proportionate to
their altitude from the sun and from the earth and their
average density is significantly lower than gases at the
earth’s surface.
Thus the sun and all the planets including the earth and
the moon are connected by mutual atmosphere, which of course
is really the sun’s atmosphere, with local gravitational
variations or influences.
In this respect when it is said that the earth’s atmosphere
extends to 80,000 km, what is meant is that the gravitational
influence of the earth, in the direction of the sun, is
the dominant force on the gaseous matter to this altitude,
whereupon at a higher altitude the gravitational influence
of the sun is then predominant.
Clearly the earth, in rotating on its axis and orbiting
the sun, is moving through the sun’s atmosphere of gas,
as it has done for billions of years, and this solar atmosphere
has obviously had no serious effect (e.g. of frictional
forces removing atmospheric gases) on the earth’s atmosphere
at the surface on which our lives depend.
Celestial Gravitation
As discussed the gravitational effects on the rod ends
in the previous section are infinitely small and the
pressure gradients as depicted consequently so minute as
to be practically immeasurable. It remains to consider how this concept
can apply to larger bodies such as the attraction between the earth
and the moon, where the total force of mutual attraction needed to
maintain it in its orbit around the earth is obviously enormous.
Between the earth and the moon there are gases that vary
in density with altitude from both bodies, and from the
surface of the earth to the surface of the moon there is
always a continuous volume of atoms that are directly affected by
the gravitational attraction of both bodies. The density of this
gaseous matter varies in line with the intensity of the gravitational
forces exerted by the masses of both.
The effect of the moon’s gravitation on the earth is observed
twice each day with oceanic tidal fluctuations, which are
caused by the ocean surface being ‘pulled’ upwards towards
the moon and away from its normal position, i.e. that level governed
by the earth’s gravitation alone.22
This is a clear example of the effects of this force on
fluid matter and this force has a similar and concurrent
‘tidal’ effect upon the atmosphere, in other words the
earths atmosphere is distorted in the same manner as the oceans below
it, but as it is less dense the atmospheric ‘tides’ are consequently
greater in extent. The diagram below illustrates these effects on
arbitrary layers of atmosphere on one side of the earth.
Figure 50
The same forces distort the entire atmosphere between the
earth and the moon, resulting in ‘atmospheric’ tides in the atmospheres
of both bodies, however the tides of the moon’s thin atmosphere,
being subject to the greater attraction of the earth, are proportionately
larger in dimension.
The diagram below is an indication of the distortions of
arbitrary layers of atmosphere. 23
Figure 51
The diagram below depicts the ‘cone’ of the direct gravitational influence
between the earth and the moon. The point where lines drawn from opposing
sides of each body intersect is about 200,000 km from the earth.
Figure 52
The mean radius of the orbit of the moon about the earth
is 385,000 Km, the diameter of the earth is about 12,750 Km and that
of the moon about 3475 Km and the volume of this cone is about 26
trillion cubic Km.
All the atoms in this cone are being pulled in both directions
by the gravitational forces of the earth and the moon. These atoms
are therefore experiencing similar stresses to the single atom in Figure
42, and also effectively transmitting the attractive gravitational
forces of the earth and the moon via the intermediary atoms to each
other.
Thus the atoms here, like the atoms in the previous examples,
are being decompressed by the gravitational forces of both
bodies acting to pull them in opposite directions, however these
forces are not the only forces involved here.
The other factor which modifies this effect, as outlined
earlier, are the lateral forces acting on the matter outside
the direct cone of attraction between the earth and the moon and
these forces tend to modify the total volume under relative decompression
as shown below.
The arrow from point G indicates the forces generated by
the combined attractive forces of both bodies acting on
the matter outside the direct cone of influence, which,
combined with the same forces inside the cone, result
in the pressure gradients, indicated by the dashed curves.
Figure 53
These pressure gradients give an indication of the total volume of
the gases subjected to relative decompression within the area of mutual
attraction represented by the shaded area.
However this situation is of course not static and the
motion of the moon in its orbit about the earth brings in another factor.
Lunar Motion
The diameter of the moon subtends an angle of about 0.6°
at the earth; its hourly movement in relation to the earth
is about 0.5° of arc. Thus the diagram below shows the
approximate hourly lateral movement of the moon as seen
from the earth.
Figure 54
If we consider a cross sectional disk of the cone as described in
Figure 52 above at a distance of 200,000 Km from the earth, the radius
of this disk is 2678 kilometres and its area is 22.5 million square
kilometres as shown below.
Figure 55
This disk therefore is displaced each hour and ten minutes by about
one diameter and the cone at this point affects a completely new volume
of the solar atmosphere every hour and ten minutes.
The moon’s motion is continually and progressively changing
the gases that occupy the cone of gravitational influence
and the atoms within it have only a limited period of time to absorb
energy in order to restore a level of relative equilibrium.
However the only way that they can expand is by absorbing
energy and the nearest source of energy is the adjacent
atoms that are subjected to almost identical stress. For the atoms
at the centre of this disk to attain a state of relative equilibrium
thermal energy must be transferred atom to atom from outside the
direct cone of influence, and as it is observed that the transmission
of the force of pressure is considerably faster than the transmission
of thermal energy, it is clear that the thermal diffusion of energy
over this distance of more than 2600 kilometres would not occur,
within the time scale set by the moons orbital motion, even if ‘surplus’
energy were readily available.
If no expansion is possible, then, while the relatively
weak forces of inter-atomic attraction and repulsion still
play a role, the force of resistance to the state of vacuum is the
predominant factor in this situation.
Force of Resistance to the State of a Vacuum.
Figure 56
The central atom in the figure above is represents any
atom in the volume of decompressed gases between the earth and the
moon. This atom is being attracted in both directions and is therefore
under a force of decompression, which could be relieved either by
the removal of the gravitational forces or alternatively by the absorption
of energy into its field or, theoretically, by the creation of the
state of a vacuum at its outer periphery.
This force, the ‘force of resistance to decompression’,
therefore could also be described as the ‘force of resistance
to the state of vacuum’, which force, acting at the outer energy
fields of the atoms prevents their separation.
However, as this state is not possible and as expansion
is also not feasible in the circumstances, therefore, while
this individual atom is under the gravitational influence
of these two celestial bodies, it is exerting a reciprocal force
precisely equivalent to that exerted upon it by the earth and by
the moon.
In other words it is exerting a force of attraction on
the earth and the moon proportional to its own mass, which
force is so immeasurably minute that it could be termed
infinitesimal.
However it is the cumulative effect of these atomic forces
acting on the incalculable number of atoms in a volume
of over 20 trillion cubic kilometres of gas affected by
the mutual forces between the earth and the moon that must
be considered. Clearly these cumulative and reciprocal forces acting
on the earth and the moon can produce the total of centripetal forces
that are necessary to hold the mass of the moon in its orbit around
the earth.
The overall effect of the combination of these forces can
be compared to the effects of the cylinder walls in the
apparatus discussed earlier, in that the flow of energy
laterally into the area of decompression is restricted,
in this case not by the rigidity of the matter of the walls of a
cylinder, but by the combination of slow energy diffusion and the
motion of the moon, both of which have the same effect, and accordingly
a consistent energy differential is maintained between the gases
within the cone of gravitational force and those outside it.
The combined effect of these minute forces acting directly
between the earth and the moon could therefore be compared
to having two massive pistons at each end of a cylinder
containing a decompressed gas.
Thus the model of Field Theory can provide a basis for
a logical and sensible description of the force of gravitation,
but clearly the implications of this idea are serious not
only for kinetic atomic theory but for quantum and relativity
theories as well as the current general assumption of a continuously
expanding universe.
Chapter 8 >
Back to Gravity Contents >
|
