Romun Nose

1 https://slideplayer.com/slide/4178450/

3 https://physics.aps.org/story/v27/st24

It is stated in the scientific literature that atoms in the solid state are “rotating and vibrating kinetically in place”, and accordingly that there can be no consistent attractive forces acting between atoms.
However it is quite clear from numerous electron microscope images available online of atomic structures, such as those in 1 and 2 above, that these formations would not at all be possible unless very strong attractive forces are acting directly between these atoms, and so it is evident that there can be no independent “rotational and vibrational” interactions, no individual “kinetic motions” of atoms.
With respect to the single gold atom depicted as ultimately connecting the two masses in the reconstructed image this single atom is ultimately, actively and directly transmitting a relatively strong force of attraction between the two separate masses of gold atoms, and accordingly could not have any independent, “rotational or vibrational”, motion.
These strong interatomic attractive forces are also clearly demonstrated in these videos:-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGWSX6pStd0
Gold atoms being pulled apart.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9dn-Umr7VU
Attraction and fusion between two nano-particles of gold.

All this is supported by the observed complete bonding, the cold fusion, of two plane sheets of any metal in industrial processes, as indicated in the images below:-

In these circumstances of relatively very strong interatomic attraction acting between these atoms it is evident that individual atoms are exerting equally strong repulsive forces in order to maintain their structural integrity.

It is now accepted that with a reduction in temperature from STP individual atoms are reduced in volume, and obviously in the opposite direction they increase in volume.

But to conform to current “kinetic” theory it is necessary to believe that with an input of energy at STP the component atoms do not further increase in volume but remain at the STP volumes, whereupon an interatomic vacuum forms and begins to progressively, and exponentially, expand and that these enclosed atoms then begin to move “kinetically” and collide with adjacent atoms.

This would mean that these hypothetical conditions of the changes of state of matter at STP here at the surface of the Earth extend and apply throughout the entire universe, which in turn means that the transmission of observed forces of attraction between both macroscopic and celestial bodies is impossible.

This absurd, incongruous, hypothetical situation is patently and generally accepted by all theoretical physicists.

Below is a published image of an experiment with a disk magnet in a copper tube, where the magnet’s field is depicted as acting internally within the pipe.

Current theory states that, apart from iron and a few other elements, the vast majority of elemental atoms do not extend an externally acting magnetic field, which of course includes the copper atoms of this pipe structure.

And these atoms are stated as being composed almost entirely of vacua and are “oscillating and rotating in place”, and accordingly no communal magnetic field can possibly propagate between individual atoms, as this would inhibit any such continuous ‘kinetic’ motions.

I have carried out a number of similar experiments with a copper pipe of gauge 15mm OD and 12.5 mm ID, and using a disk magnet of a diameter of 11.5 mm, as is depicted in the first image below.

This disk, on introduction into the top of a 43 cm length of this standard copper plumbing pipe, took around 6 seconds to fall to the bottom, i.e. a velocity of around 7 cm a second.

This magnet remained perfectly centralised in the tube over its passage down, as when viewed from the top aperture a ring of light was always visible through the 0.5 mm gap around the disk, as depicted in the images below.

However, if this experiment is carried out with an unmagnetised piece of iron wire, 2 mm in diameter, placed and held in contact with the copper pipe, as depicted in the diagram below, then as the disk magnet falls to this point it stops immediately and it moves into direct contact with the internal face of the tube.

On releasing the hold on the wire, it then remains held firmly in place on the outside of the copper tube, and only when it is forcibly removed does the magnet continue in its, relatively slow, passage to the bottom.

If this is repeated with the wire held, not in direct contact with the tube but in the close vicinity a few millimetres from it, as the magnet reaches this position it is still strongly attracted and both are drawn into contact with the copper tube and again it stops at this point.

All this proves that the field emanating from the disk magnet is acting, it propagates, directly through the copper tube into the external atmosphere, and it is obvious that the only possible medium for the transmission of this magnetic field are the atoms of the copper together with those of the atmosphere, the magnetic orientations of both of which are influenced by the, relatively very strong, field generated by the magnet.  In other words the natural magnetic alignments of the copper atoms are rotated to conform to the magnetic field of the disk magnet.

Clearly these magnetic forces cannot by any means act via “vacuous copper atoms” that are “rotating and vibrating kinetically” in an extra-atomic vacuum.

Both attractive and repulsive forces are acting here directly through the billions of internal gaseous atoms separating the pipe and the magnet, and which forces are then transmitted, via the copper atoms, into the external atmospheric gases.

It is also important to note that it is these many billions of copper atoms which are interacting with this strong magnet’s field and that the individual magnetic moments, and field extents, of these atoms and the far greater numbers of the atmospheric gases, are proportionate to their minuscule dimensions.

Further the intrinsic alignments of copper atoms evidently do not combine to generate an externally measurable magnetic field.

There is one and only one possible explanation for this result, and this is that these billions of continuous and magnetically interacting copper atoms of the pipe are forcibly deflected from their relatively very strong, natural structural magnetic alignments into temporary alignments with the disk magnet’s field.

The image below is of a gold nano-wire of atoms that has been physically drawn out and the structural arrangements of these are similar to that of electron microscope images of the continuous structure of atoms at a copper surface, and the diagram below this is a direct copy of an Electron Microscopy image of this surface, together with a cross sectional view of this structure.

This gold structure can be reproduced on a macroscopic scale with spherical neodymium magnets, as in the photograph below, where there is a cross section composed of seven spheres which are strongly and mutually attracted as indicated in the images shown below.

However it is important to note at this point that this particular structure of very strong magnets does not extend any significant external magnetic field longitudinally or laterally.

This cross sectional structure of seven spherical magnets above is observed, in experiments, to have their magnetic alignments as shown in the first image below, and if additional magnets are added as in the following image of a cross section of 19 the orientations remain the same and again there is no significant external field generated.

The following image depicts the observed longitudinal magnetic alignments of the spherical magnets in the photo above.

IN contrast the photo below is of the structural arrangements of spherical magnets, which are separately constructed as four distinct lines and which all align naturally N-S. These separate lines can be brought together and retain their alignments and form an arrangement as shown in the image below, and numerous such N-S lines of these magnets can be brought together.

However this particular arrangement does generate an active, and nominally spherical, magnetic field to some distance into the atmosphere, for example a single, 5 mm diameter, spherical magnet is observed to extend a field of influence to a spherical volume over 40 centimetres in diameter.

The N-S magnetic alignments of these spheres are indicated in the diagrams below and are clearly replicating the external magnetic fields as generated by standard magnets in experiments with iron filings.

With respect to the experiments represented in diagrams B,C and D above it is also important to note that it is many billions of copper atoms that are interacting with the strong magnet’s field and that the individual magnetic moments, the field extents, of these solid state atoms and those the atmospheric gases, are proportionate to their minuscule dimensions.

Further that as discussed the intrinsic alignments of copper atoms in the metal evidently do not combine to generate an externally measurable magnetic field.

There is one and only one possible explanation for this result, and this is that these billions of continuous and magnetically interacting copper atoms of the pipe are forcibly deflected from their relatively strong, natural structural magnetic alignments into temporary alignments with the disk magnet’s field.

Copper atoms are the most efficient element at transmitting electricity as atoms easily confirm to magnetic influences and to then return to their natural alignments.

With reference to the intrinsic alignments of the spherical magnets as exemplifying the arrangements of atoms as indicated in the Electron Microscopy image of a gold wire, the images below replicate these arrangements with atoms, which atoms are induced by the introduction of a DC ‘electric’ current into N-S or S-N alignments as is depicted and then remain in this configuration until the current is switched off whereupon they immediately revert to their prior, natural arrangements (as depicted earlier on page 5).

This of course also applies to the external fields generated and affecting the surrounding gases to a spacial extent that is determined by the strength of the ‘electric’ current’s force/extent.

With an induced AC current however each N-S pulse emits a directional field out into the atmosphere which is immediately followed by an opposing pulse (S-N) and so spherical impulses of energy are continuously emitted outwards into the atmospheric atoms and these propagate away from the wire at an extent that is determined by the power of the current and the rate of oscillation of the opposing fields generated.

The diagram below shows the forces acting and the temporary magnetic alignments of the strong field extended by the magnet, in image D as discussed earlier, through both the copper and what can only be a continuum of gaseous atmospheric atoms, which are of densities of 1/1500th of the metal structures.

These forcible positional changes to the normal magnetic alignments of the copper atoms in the pipe absorbs energy and as this energy is absorbed and emitted relatively slowly as the bottom edge induces a resistive change and the top edge then is released, this process generates a resistance to the descent of the magnet.

This resistance would be manifested by a momentary and small increase in the temperature of the copper tube.

Clearly this can only occur through a continuum of magnetic solid and gaseous atoms.

This demonstrates that in the process of the manufacture of magnets from iron based metals, the intrinsic natural magnetic alignments of the component atoms are diverted into permanent, or semi-permanent, N-S arrangements.

 

Refraction – “The angle to which light is deflected.”

Diffraction – “Is defined as the bending of light waves around the corners of an obstacle.”

The image below is of the passage of a monochromatic ray of light to a glass prism where, according to current theory, the perfectly linear ray is refracted immediately on entry at its surface and on leaving is again instantaneously refracted on exit out into the atmosphere .

Diagram 1

Diagram 2 below is a representation of the transmission of three parallel rays of light, through the currently accepted atomic structure of vacuous ‘kinetic’ gases, towards a glass prism, and rays B and C passing in the closer proximity of the top edge of the glass prism are observed to be diffracted to differing extents as indicated, while ray A is passing above it at an elevation at which there is no observable diffractive effect.

(Note that the atmospheric atoms/molecules depicted in these diagrams are not to any scale and are only indicative.)

Diagram 2

The image below, Diagram 3, is of the same prism, where a perfectly linear ray of light, D, is passing through this hypothetical atomic structure of the atmosphere, which ray is impacting directly onto the surface of the prism at precisely the same initially projected angle as those of rays A, B & C.

According to current theory at this point ray D is immediately and instantaneously, refracted into the glass at an angle which is directly proportional to the density of the glass.

After which, on passing linearly through the glass and reaching the opposite surface, the ray is then again instantaneously deflected on its exit out into the lower density of atmospheric gases.

Diagram 3

It is evident that if rays B and C are influenced into deflecting from their initial directions in their passage through the gases immediately above the solid mass of the prism, then the rays D and E, as indicated in Diagram 4 below, will be affected in precisely the same manner in the immediate vicinity of the prism and will be also be deflected within these gases prior to their coming into contact with the surface of the glass.

And these rays, on exiting from the opposite side, will be similarly deflected in their subsequent passage through these external gases.

Diagram 4

In this respect, in his extensive experiments, Newton observed that a ray of light is deflected before it enters a prism, and that this can only be due to its interactions with the atmospheric gases in the vicinity of the surface.

“if a ray move obliquely through such an unevenly dense medium it must be incurved as it is found to be, by observation in water, whose lower parts were made gradually more salt, and so more dense than the upper”

“and the refraction I conceive to proceed from the continual incurvation of the ray ”

http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00002

In this context it been known for centuries that, away from the observers zenith, light is progressively refracted in its passage down through the atmosphere, which is due to the increasing density of the atmospheric gases, so that corrections have to be made for the observed positions of celestial bodies.

The image below is copied from the Admiralty Manual of Navigation 1954.

5

And today, it is now proven that light is coincidentally slowed in its passage down through and into the Earth’s atmosphere, which can only be due to the progressive increase in the density of the atmospheric gases.

These images below depict the passage of a ray of light from a star down through the atmosphere to an observer at the surface, the red stars being the observed positions.

Image B is an enlargement of part of A, where the density of the atmosphere is artificially separated into sections as in the Admiralty manual. But of course the density of the atmosphere increases progressively with the reduction in altitude down to the surface and so the curve is parabolic, as is depicted in C.

It is therefore obvious that the density of the atmospheric gases will progressively increase down to the matter at the surface, and that the increase in resistance and the reduction in velocity will be proportionate to the density of this matter and accordingly the refraction of light will be proportionate to these densities.

For example in the close vicinity of surfaces, those of liquids such as water, bromine and mercury and solids such as glass, diamond, granite or lead, the densities of gases will increase in proportion to their diverse densities. Therefore the velocities, and accordingly any angular deflections, of rays of light impacting these various surfaces will differ in concert.

As there are no natural circumstances where gases or liquids can be assumed to be of perfectly consistent densities, then the passage of rays of light through matter cannot be assumed to propagate perfectly linearly, however no deflection is observable in the transit through solid translucent matter of a greater consistencies, such as crystal glass.

It is important to note that the consistencies of solids, even that of diamond, cannot be assumed to be perfectly consistent, as in all natural cases some contaminants will be present.

It is evident from all the above observations that light is at all times interacting directly with gaseous and liquid matter and is directly influenced by the variations in their densities.

The progressive increases in the densities of the atmosphere will continue to the surface and there will be no point where this progression ceases to act within these gases, whether the surface encountered is composed of solids or liquids of varying densities.

And so the velocity of light from the sun will be progressively slowed down to the earth’s surface and, away from the vertical, will be refracted progressively and continuously down to the point where it is in direct contact with this surface.

As this surface can be of differing densities, such as those of water or solid matter, the increase in the densities of gases in direct contact with these will also vary and the velocities and refraction of light will accordingly be affected.

Examples are the observed variations in refraction at the surfaces of water, glass and diamond of masses of 1, 2.5 and 3.5 g/cm³ respectively, as in the diagrams below, where an incident angle of light of 45 degrees results in respective refractions of 32°, 28° and 17° to the normal.

The image below is from a textbook and depicts the currently accepted tracking of a perfectly linear ray of light through the atmosphere to the surface of water and a linear progression down into the water.

The image below is of the transmission of a reflected rays of light upwards to an observer on land from a fish in water.

The generally accepted progress of this is shown in the black dashed lines as in the diagram below where again this emergent ray is presented as being linear at all times and is immediately deflected at the surface.

The parabolic red dashed line is that of a ray of light reflected from the fish traveling upwards through the varying densities of seawater to the surface and which, when it is emitted up into the atmospheric gases that are also of progressively decreasing densities, is also subjected to a level of refraction that is dependent on these densities.

“The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m³, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6  kg/m³.

Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m³ or higher.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater

The images below are of the variations in the incidental angles of rays of light emitted from water, where there is no direct mathematical relationship between the incident and the refracted angles.

However if this is considered when the atmospheric gases are of progressively increasing densities towards the surface, then the variations in density experienced by a ray of light at an incident angle of 5 degrees is significantly lower than that of one at 45 degrees and so the overall refraction is reduced.

The first image below is a copy from a textbook of the interactions of a ray of light emitted out from water to the surface, where the rays are depicted as being linear. Clearly these emergent rays are moving upwards from the surface into decreasing densities of air, and these rays will be fractionally influenced and progressively diverted.

The second diagram depicts such interactions where apart from the ray emerging parallel to the surface the refractive curves are parabolic.

The image above is of the refraction of light that is often seen on water due to the reverse occurring on these surfaces, this is also seen on land in mirages, as depicted in the following diagram.

The image below indicates the progressive refraction of a ray of light down (or up) through the atmosphere into water and sea water.

“The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m³, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6  kg/m³.

Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m³ or higher.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater

“Everything you’ve learned in school as ‘obvious’ becomes less and less obvious as you begin to study the universe. For example, there are no solids in the universe. There’s not even a suggestion of a solid. There are no absolute continuums. There are no surfaces. There are no straight lines.”

R. Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983)

“The similar situation occurs in case of light – it bends on the borderline between two media in a way that will guarantee the shortest journey possible through the medium in which it moves slower (with bigger refraction coefficient, normally with higher density). As a result, light deflects towards the medium of higher density. In nature, a borderline between the media is rarely “clear”. Therefore, we do not observe a sudden change of light, but a “smooth” version of refraction – light changes direction gradually. In the described experiment we deal with such a situation. The beam light, as shown in figure 3, gradually deflects from a direction parallel to the water level. You can observe an analogous situation in much larger scale in everyday life. The Sun, which is actually located below the horizon line, is registered by our brains as if it was above the horizon. It is connected with the variable density of air in our atmosphere, ranging from highly rarefied in upper layers to extremely dense near the Earth’s surface. Deflection of rays is known as refraction. On figure 4 you can see a diagram of such a phenomenon.”

Krzystof Pawlowski, Centre for Theoretical Physics, Warsaw

http://www.pl.euhou.net/docupload/files/Excersises/WorldAroundUs/Refraction/refraction.pdf

In conclusion, and in agreement with experiment, the combined direction and the velocity of a ray of light are dependent upon the density of the medium, and there is no situation in nature where the density of a fluid medium is absolutely consistent.

Therefore, in no such circumstance, does a ray of light propagate perfectly linearly, therefore the current belief that its direction alters instantaneously at the surface of translucent solid matter is false.

With respect to refraction there is at no point in any circumstance an instantaneous refraction of light, it is not possible.

Roger Munday